construction grammar - definition and discussion

In linguistics, construction grammar  refers to any of the various approaches to language study that emphasize the role of grammatical constructions--that is, conventional pairings of form and meaning. Some of the different versions of construction grammar are considered below. Construction grammar is a theory of linguistic knowledge. Instead of assuming a clear-cut division of lexicon and syntax, note Hoffmann and Trousdale, Construction Grammarians consider all constructions to be part of a lexicon-syntax continuum (a construction). Examples and Observations James R. HurfordThere are several different versions of Construction Grammar, and my account . . . will describe, quite informally, what they have in common. The common idea is that a speakers knowledge of his language consists of a very large inventory of constructions, where a construction is understood to be of any size and abstractness, from a single word to some grammatical aspect of a sentence, such as its Subject-Predicate structure. Construction Grammar emphasizes that there is a lexicon-syntax continuum, contrary to traditional views in which the lexicon and the syntactic rules are held to be separate components of a grammar. The central motive of Construction Grammar theorists is to account for the extraordinary productivity of human languages, while at the same time recognizing the huge amount of idiosyncratic grammatical data that humans acquire and store. The constructionist approach to grammar offers a way out of the lumper/splitter dilemma (Goldberg 2006, p. 45). The k ey point is that storage of idiosyncratic facts is compatible with deploying these facts productively to generate novel expressions.R.L. TraskCrucially, construction grammars are not derivational. So for example, the active and passive forms of a sentence are regarded as having different conceptual structures rather than one being a transformation of the other. Since construction grammars depend on the conceptual meaning in context, they can be seen as approaches to linguistics that collapse the classical distinctions between semantics, syntax, and pragmatics. The construction is the unit of language, which cuts across these other aspects. So, for example, in They laughed him out of the room, the normally intransitive verb receives a transitive reading and the situation can be interpreted on the basis of the X cause Y to move construction rather than the sytanctic deviance alone. As a result, construction grammars are proving most useful in understanding language acquisition and are being used for second-language teaching, since it is the meaningfulness of the situation which is of primary importance, and syntax and semantics are treated holistically.William Croft and D. Alan CruseAny grammatical theory can be described as offering models of representation of the structure of an utterance, and models of organization of the relationship between utterance structures (presumably, in a speakers mind). The latter are sometimes described in terms of levels of representation, linked by derivational rules. But construction grammar is a nonderivational model (like, for instance, Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar), and so a more general description of this aspect of grammatical theory is organization. Different versions of construction grammar will be briefly outlined . . .. We survey four variants of construction grammar found in cognitive linguistics--Construction Grammar (in capital letters; Kay and Fillmore 1999; Kay et al. in prep.), the construction grammar of Lakoff (1987) and Goldberg (1995), Cognitive Grammar (Langacker 1987, 1991) and Radical Construction Grammar (Croft 2001)--and focus on the distinctive characteristics of each theory... It should be noted that the different theories tend to focus on different issues, representing their distinctive positions vis–à  Ã¢â‚¬â€œvis the other theories. For example, Construction Grammar explores syntactic relations and inheritance in detail; the Lakoff/Goldberg model focuses more on categorization relations between constructions; Cognitive Grammar focuses on semantic categories and relations; and Radical Construction Grammar focuses on syntactic categories and typological universals. Finally, the last three theories all endorse the usage-based model...Thomas Hoffmann and Graeme TrousdaleOne of the central concepts of linguistics is the Saussurean notion of the linguistic sign as an arbitrary and conventional pairing of form (or sound pattern/signifiant) and meaning (or mental concep t/signife; cf., e.g., de Saussure [1916] 2006: 65-70). Under this view, the German sign Apfel and its Hungarian equivalent alma have the same underlying meaning apple, but different associated conventional forms . . .. Over 70 years after Saussures death, several linguists then explicitly started to explore the idea that arbitrary form-meaning pairings might not only be a useful concept for describing words or morphemes but that perhaps all levels of grammatical description involve such conventionalized form-meaning pairings. This extended notion of the Saussurean sign has become known as construction (which includes morphemes, words, idioms, and abstract phrasal patterns) and the various linguistic approaches exploring this idea were labeled Construction Grammar.Jan-Ola Ãâ€"stman and Mirjam Fried[One] precursor to Construction Grammar is a model that was also developed at the University of California at Berkeley in the late 1970s, within the tradition of Generative Semantics. This was the work of George Lakoff and informally known as Gestalt Grammar (Lakoff 1977). Lakoffs experiential approach to syntax was based on the view that the grammatical function of a sentence constituent holds only in relation to a particular sentence type as a whole. Specific constellations of relations such as Subject and Object thus constituted complex patterns, or gestalts. . . . Lakoffs (1977: 246-247) list of 15 characteristics of linguistic gestalts contains many of the features that have become definitional criteria of constructions in Construction Grammar, including, for example, the formulation that Gestalts are at once holistic and analyzable. They have parts, but the wholes are not reducible to the parts.

Sigmund Freud s Oedipus Complex ( Schultz Sydney P. 42 )

For my final submission, I will be reviewing everything that I had learned in class, about psychology from the early days of Freud all the way to preset day. Growing up, Freud’s father was strict and authoritarian; Freud felt superior to his father by the age of 2. His mother was protective and loving towards him, which led Freud to feel a passionate, sexual attachment to her. This situation set the stage for his Oedipus complex (Schultz Sydney P. 42). Like this complex, most of Freud’s theories reflect his own childhood. Freud later described personality as being made up of three structures, first, the Id. The Id is the aspect of personality that deals with instincts; it operates according to the pleasure principle. Freud described the†¦show more content†¦Freud described the reality principle as being governed by the Ego, which controls the instant gratification mentality of the Id. Lastly is the Superego, which is the moral aspect of personality. It is the internalization of parental and societal values and standards. Freud thought that this aspect was developed by the age of 5 or 6 and consist initially of the rules established by our parents (Schultz Sydney P. 51). The belief that this aspect of our personality being completely developed by the age of 5 or 6 is one of the concepts that Freud and Jung disagreed on. Freud and Jung also disagreed on dream analysis and how to interpret dreams. Using dream analysis Freud thought that he could learn about an individual through the interpretation of their dreams. He thought that our experiences and desires would come to light in our dreams, even our sexually repressed desires. Freud also thought that different inanimate objects represented phallic symbols or hidden meaning in ones dreams (Schultz Sydney P. 87). This is just another example of how Freud incorporated a sexual meaning or desire into his theories. Like Freud, Carl Jung believed that dream analysis allowed for a window into the unconscious mind. However, unlike Freud’s theory about dream interpretation, Jung didn’t believe that content of all dreams were sexual or that they disguised their true meaning. Jung thought that dreams were more symbolic, that dreams could have different interpretations according to

Geography Assessment Fertility and Mortality Free Essays

string(61) " however it is much more difficult in a place such as Kenya\." 1. Suggest explain why, within a country, crude birth rate varies over time. Use named examples and evidence to support your answer. We will write a custom essay sample on Geography Assessment Fertility and Mortality or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the 19th century most countries had a very high birth rate. Since then different countries birth rate has changed and this is mainly because the government implement different polices towards their population. One set of polices is a pro-natal view and this encourages the population to have children and fertility is promoted. One reason for increasing fertility is to compensate for wartime losses for example France in 1918 after the First World War. Germany additionally applied a pro natal strategy to promote Nazi Germany as they wanted to encourage a particular race in pursuit of racially motivated polices. Also, in Japan they want to preserve the labor force from an ageing population and recently they have seen a rise in the birth rate for the first time in six years. Governments have also applied two types of Anti-natal policies to their country and these can be either voluntary or coercive. Voluntary polices include spreading information about family planning clinics with funding form the World Health Organization. They reach out to try and persuade the population to keep below a certain number of children. The earliest examples are in India and Pakistan and now Indonesia is following in their footsteps with setting up 2000 family planning clinics. However some governments turned to an involuntary anti-natal policy, Chinas one child policy is an example of this but researchers are realizing today that even though it may have been strict at the time they have come to understand that it has had very little impact on the population at all. China had and is stilling having a major population crisis. It was introduced in 1979 and if families followed this policy they received free education, health care, pensions and family benefits but these would be taken away if the couple has more than one child. However, the scheme has caused a number of problems in China. This is particularly the case for hundreds of thousands of young females. Many thousands of young girls have been abandoned by their parents as the result of the one child policy. This is because many parents in China prefer to have a boy to carry on the family name. As a result large numbers of girls have either ended up in orphanages, homeless or in some cases killed. The policy has had little impact on the population, it was already decreasing from 1970 – 1979 and had dropped from 34 per 1000 to 18 per 1000 and is now 14 per 1000. It has only gone down 4 per 1000 over 28 years and it has been resisted strongly by the people especially in rural areas as there are not enough people to work on farms. There have also been some changing polices for example in Singapore. From 1965-1987 they introduced a ‘stop at two’ campaign this was designed to improve the quality of life for the Singaporean people as the live on such a small island. However the scheme changed dramatically as the government saw the population was the only asset it had. Advance in technology have allowed Singapore to do well in the global economy this is also because of its highly educated population. However now the fertility is continuing to drop and is starting to go into an ageing population. To try and increase the TRF they have introduced incentives for more children and the baby bonus scheme. This includes things such as when have a second child the government will open a children development account and money will be added to the account. Governments mainly influence the birth rates within a country because of the different policies they set in place. 2. Suggest explain reasons why crude birth rates vary between countries at different levels of economic development There are many reasons why birth rates vary between countries which are at different levels of economic development. LEDC’s tend to have very high birth rates and this is because of lack of education about family planning and contraception. In places such as Tanzania there is no access to contraception and therefore the birth rate is high at 39 per 1000. In MEDC’s contraception is widely available and there this will make the birth rate decrease. You are able to buy all forms of contraception and in MEDC’s people are very well educated on them and how to use them. Also, in LEDC’s children are economic assets the more children you have the great income the family will gain. This is because at a very young age children are able to work on farms and earn money for the family. However, in present day this is even seen less in LEDC’s as more and more children are trying to go to school to get an education. Where as in an MEDC children are known as economic burdens, they do not start working until 18 and live off there parents until then. Children in MEDC’s expect a lot more in there youth such as a good education, clothes, pocket and the general living expenses for food and clothes is much more expensive than in an LEDC. Another reason that birth rates are very high in LEDC’s compared to MEDC’s is because there is a high infant mortality rate in most LEDC’s. Sierra Leone has an infant mortality rate of 160 deaths per 1000 live births. This means that the more children a woman has then there is greater chance of survival for one of them to grow up till adult level. This is generally because of the lack of medical care available in LEDC’s where as in a MEDC there is easy access to medical attention. Most babies’ die of malnutrition or malaria and these are both easy dealt with in an MEDC however it is much more difficult in a place such as Kenya. You read "Geography Assessment Fertility and Mortality" in category "Papers" In MEDC’s there is lower birth rate because women’s role society has changed over time. In present day a lot of women are going through higher education onto university and ready to start careers before settling down. This leads to having children later when they are older which to there ‘fertility window’ being limited or not at all. Women’s role in society is also linked very closely to children becoming economic burdens. Couples cannot afford having a lot of children as it is too expensive leading to smaller families with fewer children. However, the difference between LEDC and MEDC birth rates are becoming more alike. Since 2000 the total fertility rate in LEDC’s are dramatically decreasing. In 2000 Ethiopia’s the TRF was 7.07 and now in 2007 this has decreased to 5.10 and the same is happening in Saudi Arabia going from 6.39 children down to 3.94. However, MEDC’s birth rate is also decreasing and going into an ageing population, Finland going from a Total Fertility rate of 2.04 down to 1.73 showing that the rate is now below replacement level. 3. Suggest explain why, within a country, crude death rate varies over time. In the UK the death rate has been fluctuating since the beginning of the 18th century. The death rate was steady decreasing in the second half of the 18th century however, in the start of the 19th century this started to change. Firstly, there was a war in France although this death count was nothing compared to the deaths caused by the potato famine in 1845 over 1 million people died from starvation and disease in Ireland because of failure of the potato crop. However the death rate continued to rise from the outbreak of cholera in 1848 when over 13,000 people died. At the time there was no cure for the disease and no body new the cause of it. Before 1820 a lot of the population was insolvent and was dying because of starvation however since 1760 major advances in agriculture was made. Selective breeding was starting to occur and was soon producing ‘superior’ animals. New vegetable such as carrots were being grown and the land was becoming much more productive. This then had a reflection on the life expectancy and was now more than 40 years. However, social class was definitely affecting the death rate. Research has shown that more affluent areas had a lower death rate than working class and this could be linked to poorer housing conditions which meant that disease is able to spread quicker and affect more people. In 1843 the life expectancy in Manchester was just 24 years old and with the over crowding and lack of hygiene allowed many diseases to multiply such as tuberculosis and typhus fever. Water became very contaminated and people would drink this and become very sick. Nevertheless, medical developments started to be discovered and soon enough a cure for smallpox was found. Small pox was responsible for over 21/2 million people a year and 1 in 13 children would die from it, it was the world’s most feared disease. Since then medical care kept improving and they established anesthetic for operations and penicillin to kill bacteria. National Health Service was introduced in 1948 to cover the population’s medical needs. In the 20th century the death rate continued to decline despite the wars and weapons and the life expectancy had risen to 75 years. However, now we have new medical issues to worry about since AIDS is the new feared disease and cancer seems to be striking more and more. However, within a country certain ages migrate to certain areas of the country for example there is a higher death rate in the south coast of England because there are lots of retirement centers down there and many people of the older generation move there for the scenery, quietness and relaxation as they do not want to retire in a city. The futures death path is undecided no one can predict what will happen. With the UK now becoming the fattest nation in Europe it seems that they have fight obesity as well. Two-thirds of men and almost 60% of women are unhealthily heavy and if nothing changes, nearly a third of boys and girls aged under 11 will be overweight or obese by 2010. With unhealthy diets, little exercise and fast food it seems like the new epidemic to beat is obesity. 4. Why do crude death rates vary between countries at different levels of economic development? Death rates between countries with different levels of economic development because of many reasons. Firstly, in LEDC’s there is a much higher death rate than in MEDC’s, one reason for this is access to clean water, sanitation and a reliable food supply. MEDC’s have a much more reliable food supply than countries such as Ethiopia and because of this many people there die of starvation or malnutrition. The developed world has more money and infrastructure to control sewage and water filtration to make sure that water is clean and drinkable. Food has become more widely available with reliable with application of fertilisers, pesticides and agro-chemicals. In MEDC’s the land area required to grow crops has decreased substantially yet the yield outputs have increased also intensive farming methods have been introduced such as the green revolution in the EU. Also, medical care in MEDC’s is of a higher standard compared to LEDC’s. More and more vaccinations are being introduced in MEDC’s to prevent diseases and this also helps to lower the infant mortality as well as the death rate. People in MEDC’s also have a higher life expectancy which lowers the death rate as people are living for longer. Disease control shows the development and access to medication. If there is good access to medical care then there is a low number of population per doctor. Somewhere such as the UK with 300 pop per doc has a better access to medical care than Ethiopia with a pop per doc of 32 499! Advances in medical technology have also helped reduce the death rate such as keyhole surgery and antibiotics. Also, some countries have a National Health Service such as the UK this means that any medical attention is free. Many LEDC’s do not have this and a lot of the population cannot afford doctors which therefore mean there is a greater risk of dying from curable diseases. How to cite Geography Assessment Fertility and Mortality, Papers

Obesity and How To Overcome It free essay sample

Obesity is one of the biggest struggles with children and their parents today even more than drug and alcohol abuse. There are many causes why a child may become obese. Parents should take the proper steps to ensure that their children have healthy lifestyles. If not, the children may have many problems now and later on in life. These problems will not be easy to fix when the children are adults, so the children should start to change as soon as the signs of obesity arise. Obesity is defined as having extra body fat for a certain height from fat, muscle, bone, water, or a mixture of these factors. This is sometimes the result of caloric imbalance, or not enough calories used for the amount that are consumed (Adolescent and School Health). Others define obesity in children as body weight at least twenty percent higher than a healthy weight for a child of that height, or a body fat percentage above twenty five percent in boys or above thirty two percent in girls (quoted in E Medicine Health). We will write a custom essay sample on Obesity and How To Overcome It or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Obesity commonly starts between the ages of five and six years old. It can be affected by genetic, behavioral, and environmental factors (Facts for Families). Former Surgeon General Richard Carmona states, â€Å"Because of the increasing rates of obesity, unhealthy eating habits and physical inactivity, we may see the first generation that will be less healthy and have a shorter life expectancy than their parents. (quoted in American Heart Association) Obesity is not all that meets the eye; meaning just because someone sees a larger than normal child does not mean the child is obese. Some children have larger body sizes than others. If a child is starting to put on excessive weight a doctor can see if this child’s weight is at a good point or if it poses a health problem. Body mass index should be measured on a child to see if, when compared to other children of the same sex and age, the child is normal. Body mass index does not count having a muscular body or a larger than average body frame. The child’s growth and development must be put into consideration by a doctor (Mayo Clinic). Genetic and hormonal factors may come along with obesity, but the main cause comes from children eating too much and exercising too little. Genetic diseases and hormonal disorders can be a cause of obesity, but this is not common. Diseases such as Prader-Willi syndrome and Cushing’s syndrome, affect a very small number of children (Mayo Clinic). Skin conditions may occur such as heat rash, fungal infections, and acne (WebMD). Some risk factors leading to obesity include diet, lack of exercise, family history, psychological factors, family factors, and socioeconomic factors. Eating high-calorie foods regularly can make any child gain weight. Children should avoid fast foods, baked goods, and vending machine snacks whenever possible. Filling up on soft drinks, candy, and desserts that are filled with sugar, fat, and calories is not good for any child. Children should exercise to burn the calories that are consumed throughout the day. Playing video games and watching television are not helping the problem. If a child comes from an overweight family he or she is more likely to be overweight also. These children are probably surrounded by high-calorie foods, and exercise is not encouraged by the overweight parents. There could be a psychological issue with some children causing them to overeat, thinking that helps their problems. Dealing with emotions, stress, or fighting boredom is no reason to eat excessively. Parents’ income can also be a big factor in children’s eating habits. It takes time and resources to make exercising and eating healthy a family priority (Mayo Clinic). There are many physical complications that come along with obesity. Type 2 diabetes is a common occurrence in children with a poor diet; but can be turned around if healthier foods are consumed and exercising takes place. Metabolic Syndrome includes heart disease, diabetes and other health problems. These conditions may include high blood pressure, high blood sugar, high cholesterol and excess abdominal fat. A child can develop high blood pressure and high cholesterol if he or she eats poorly. The build-up of bad food in the body can cause plaque in the arteries. The hardened arteries can lead to heart attacks and strokes later on in life. Extra weight can cause problems in the lungs making it hard for children to breathe leading to asthma. Another complication that comes with obesity is sleeping disorders. A child can have sleep apnea, in which the child snores or has abnormal breathing when he or she sleeps. Hormone imbalances may occur in an obese child, leading puberty to start earlier than normal (Mayo Clinic). There are immediate benefits that come with changing an unhealthy lifestyle to a healthy one. Children will not feel so full after eating smaller portions, going hiking with a parent will encourage open communication, fruit salad is a beautiful dessert that is also yummy and healthy (HelpGuide). In one study, children from the age of five to seventeen years old, seventy percent of the obese youth had at least one factor for cardiovascular disease. Some obese adolescents get prediabetes, which is a condition where blood glucose levels are so high that it eventually becomes diabetes. These children are also at a greater risk for having bone and joint complications, sleep problems, social problems, and poor self-esteem (Adolescent and School Health). Children who are unhappy with their weight may also be more likely to develop eating disorders and substance abuse problems. The sooner the children are diagnosed the easier it will be to make sure the children do not develop these or other medical conditions when the children get older (HelpGuide). Obesity is a common form of prejudice in our society today. The abuse from others begins as early as age three. Parents instill negative thoughts towards their obese children such as lazy, ugly, stupid, and gross. Some parents believe this will motivate their children to get healthy but usually the children just binge eat and the situation worsens. Some children who are victims of bullying become bullies themselves. Many suffer from loneliness, depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and poor body image (Family Education). If a person is obese as a child it is more likely for them to remain obese as adults. Obesity in adults may cause problems such as: heart disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, several types of cancer, and osteoarthritis. One study exposed that children as early as age two were likely to be obese adults. Obesity can also lead to some very serious cancers including cancer of the breast, colon, endometrium, esophagus, kidney, pancreas, gall bladder, thyroid, ovary, cervix, and prostate (Adolescent and School Health). Obesity factors can be lowered if healthy habits take place. The diet and physical activities of children are greatly swayed by factors such as: family, community, school, child care settings, medical care providers, faith-based institutions, government agencies, the media, and food and beverage industries. Schools can play a big role in children’s behavior. Therefore, schools need to encourage a healthy lifestyle and provide knowledge about healthy eating and physical activities (Kid’s Health). Starting in infancy, the parents should hold off on introducing solid foods and stick to breastfeeding. This is shown to reduce the cause of obesity (E Medicine Health). It is very important that parents allow their child to know that they will be supportive during weight struggle. Children’s feelings about themselves come from the way the think their parents see them, and with supportive parents, the child will have confidence (WebMD). Today’s families have very little time to prepare a healthy, nutritious meal for their children. Fast food is the quick and easy way to go for the busy family, and that leads to an unhealthy family. Parents should take control of this problem and start a weight-management program, change eating habits, plan meals, control food portions, increase physical activity, eat meals as a family, and many other things (Mayo Clinic). There are several ways to involve the entire family in healthy habits, but increasing physical activity is the most important. If children see their parents working out and having fun, they are more likely to join and be active as adults (WebMD). Encouraging longer and more regular sleep can reduce the risk of obesity. Studies have shown that a lack of sleep in children can be a big reason why they gain unwanted weight. Researchers have discovered that an extra half hour of sleep can lower BMI. They wrote that, Obese children were less likely to experience catch-up sleep on weekends, and the combination of shorter sleep duration and more-variable sleep patterns was associated with adverse metabolic outcomes. Educational campaigns, aimed at families, regarding longer and more-regular sleep may promote decreases in obesity rates and may improve metabolic dysfunction trends in school-aged children. (quoted in Obesity in Children-Virtually Unchanged in U. S. ) In conclusion, there are many factors to obesity in children. But, steps can be taken to prevent and to help this problem. With a little help from family, peers, and doctors there is no reason a child should ever have to suffer with this disease.